In the Footsteps of Piero della Francesca: Meetup and the Maddalena

Piero della Francesca's import to pre-Renaissance art and how I became involved in a trip to walk in his footsteps have previously been detailed. Now for the journey.

What I will call Day 0 of the trip entailed traveling from one's source-location to Hotel Tiferno in Citta di Castello, said hotel serving the role of Expeditionary HQ. Most of the trip participants were coming in from England and were scheduled to travel together on a BA flight to Bologna and then by coach to Citta di Castello. I will come back to that later.

I had flown into Rome earlier in pursuit of some church-bound Caravaggio paintings and then had gone on to Siena to visit some of the city's famous art repositories. My trip to Città, therefore, originated in Siena. Citta di Castello is almost due east of Siena but, due to intervening mountains, public transportation between the two locations is both circuitous and time-consuming. After exploring a number of alternatives, I settled on the train between Siena and Arezzo and a private car (NCC) between Arezzo and Hotel Tiferno. This arrangement still necessitated going north to Florence and then southeast to Arezzo  but saved significant time over taking the train from Florence to Citta di Castello. The chart below shows the journey.

I left Siena early enough to get to Hotel Tiferno for a meet-and-greet scheduled for 6:30 pm. Unfortunately, BA cancelled the flight from Heathrow and the organizers had to scramble for alternate arrangements. Fortunately they were able to get everyone to the hotel; ragged, tired, and late though they were. The meet-and-greet was dispensed with and the group dinner started after 8:30 pm.

Day 1 began with a breakfast in the hotel dining room followed by a pre-trip lecture by Tour Tutor Agnes Crawford.

Agnes Crawford and Day 1 lecture

This was the only "day-of" lecture of the entire trip; all subsequent lectures were delivered on the evening of the day prior to the tour. The intent of the lecture was to provide insight into our destinations and the Piero piece(s) we would see once there.

Our Day 1 journey entailed travel to Arezzo to see Piero works at the Cathedral of San Donato and the Basilica of San Francesca. This was a return journey for me as I had traveled from Arezzo to Città on the preceding day. We boarded our coach filled with anticipation. Piero's footsteps loomed large ahead of us.

After about 45 minutes of travel, we arrived at Arezzo.

We were dropped off at the bottom of the hill and made our way to the Cathedral of San Donato. 

Cathedral of San Donato, Arezzo

This cathedral, dedicated to Saints Donatus and Peter, is the largest Christian building in Arezzo and can trace its roots all the way back to the end of the 13th century. The original Arezzo Cathedral had been built nearby over the burial place of Saint Donatus, Arezzo's patron saint. In the 13th century the Pope ordered that the cathedral be moved to its current location within the town walls. Construction began in the 13th century but was sporadic with the facade only completed at the beginning of the 20th century. Due to its extended period of construction, it is a blend of architectural styles. According to Audiala.com: "The Duomo di Arezzo, as it stands today, is not a pure representation of any single architectural style. Instead, it stands as a fascinating blend of Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance elements, each layer telling a story of the city's rich past. This fusion of styles, rather than creating a sense of disharmony, contributes to the Duomo's unique charm and visual appeal."

The Cathedral was beautifully appointed with stunning ceilings, stained-glass windows, and wall-mounted or frescoed paintings. 

But we were here to see Piero della Francesco's work: Santa Maria Maddalena.

Piero della Francesca,
  Santa Maria Maddalena, 1459.
Viewed in situ 9/27/2025

Piero was given the commission for this effort more or less at the same time that he was working on the final scenes of the cycle of the Legend of the True Cross. According to the accompanying literature:

The fresco, mentioned by Giorgio Vasari, is next to the vestry door and neatly hidden by the fourteenth-century cenotaph of Bishop Tarlati, which was moved here in 1783, destroying the ancient chapel. It was painted by Piero della Francesca before 1459, the year the great painter had probably completed the cycle of the Legend of the True Cross in the Church of Saint Francesco in Arezzo. The Magdalene is portrayed according to the ancient iconography, her long hair worn loose, while holding in her hand the container of ointments that she would then rub on Jesus' body in the Holy Sepulchre. The Saint, set within a classical-style Renaissance arch, embellished by an extremely elegant frieze, must have been represented on a blue background of which some traces remain, just as the gold of the halo has fallen off.

Not dissimilar to early 16th-century Venetian works, the painting relies on large patches of bright colors which are also rich in symbolism: green for hope; white for faith; and red for charity. The painterly skills of the artist are manifested in the shining light reflected on the glass container in the subject's hand and the strand by strand depiction of her hair on her shoulders. These reflect the attention to detail typical of the artist's mature works.

One source has described Magdalene's look as being "triumphant, rather than penitent" and as looking down at the viewer in a deep and expressive manner with her beauty being "elegant, almost transcendent."

According to centopassidalduomo.it, "Mary Magdalene ... portrayed in a state of deep reflection and spirituality, becomes an emblem of a beauty that transcends mere physical esthetics and succeds in reaching to the soul, demonstrating Piero's ability to fuse technical innovations with profound sensitivity."

A third source: "Piero della Francesca's "Maddalena" is recognized as an incredible masterpiece of the Renaissance, marking a crucial phase in the artistic and cultural revolution of that era ... the Fresco is positioned in a period of intense creative expression for artist, highlighting  a moment of synthesis between his investigations into perspective, the use of lighting and human portraiture."

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This was breathtaking. This piece was stunningly beautiful and had rested in this space, regally looking down at viewers, for almost 500 years. We needed a break to contemplate this before going on to see the Legend of the True Cross. A story that I will pick up on a subsequent post.

Piero della Francesca: Life highlights

I was ready to follow in the Footsteps of Piero della Francesca. I had "happened" on this small, English company (Learn Italy) specializing in leisurely educational tours focused on Italian history, art, and culture; had committed to their Piero della Francesca tour; and had completed a fair amount of preparatory work. Now it was time to embark. But before I do, a brief introduction to the painter is in order.

Piero della Francesca 

Piero was born in Sansepolcro (then known as Borgo San Sepolcro) sometime around 1415. 

His family was prosperous, engaged, as they were, in the leather and indigo industries. Being the son of a merchant, Piero received training in mathematics and those skills were reflected in his work. With his family background, and education, it would have been normal for Piero to enter the family business. But this was not to be. He would use his mathematical education to great benefit in his chosen profession. 

Portrait of Piero della Francesca
from a 1648 edition of The Lives
(Wikipedia)

A summary of key aspects of the painter's life is presented in the chart below.

Piero is, today, "regarded as a genius and a foundational artist of the Early Renaissance period" and, indeed, was held in the highest esteem while alive. His friend -- and a great mathematician -- Luca Paciola called him 'el monarchs de la pittura (the monarch of painting). His works disappeared from radar screens in the 17th century, however, only re-emerging with the European and American Grand Tours of Europe. His works gained greater acclaim, and his resurrection more sustained, with the 1991 John Pope-Hennesey lecture at the New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.

In describing the painter, Natalia Iacobelli, writing in dailyartmagazine.com, states thusly:

Piero della Francesca was not only an accomplished artist of the Early Renaissance, but also one of the greatest mathematicians of his day. His works reveal his innovative mind and his meticulous understanding of space, perspective, and proportion. Piero della Francesca was at the cutting edge of Humanism, writing extensively on the topics of arithmetic and geometry. His transfixing compositions built on geometric principles demonstrate his mathematical prowess and his sensibility of the classical past.

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With some perspective on the painter, you are now ready to accompany me in his footsteps.

 

In the Steps of Piero della Francesca: The prequel

I was on a 2011 Bordeaux Index tour of Bolgheri and Montalcino when a Twitter friend (yes, I too used to be on that platform) Laura Rose-Gray, then General Manager of boutique Brunello di Montalcino winery Il Palazzone, reached out to invite me to visit the winery. By this time we had completed our visits in Montalcino and were well on our way to Florence so I regretfully declined and promised that I would do so the next time that I was in the area. 

The author with Laura Rose-Gray in Perugia

And thus began a long and fruitful (for me) online relationship. Laura was critical to my writings on Brunello di Montalcino by providing insights into trends, movers and shakers, and appellation and terroir issues. My writings in this area would have been fewer, and of lesser quality, if I had not had the good fortune of crossing virtual paths with her. I did eventually visit the estate but, a few days before my arrival, Laura's son fell ill and she had to be away. Her good friend Esther Juergens hosted me on the trip in her stead.

Il Palazzone had been owned since 2000 by the former Time Warner Executive Richard Parsons. He elevated Laura to GM in 2008. He sold the business in 2021 and the new owners wanted to be more active in running the place so Laura moved on (My Montalcino output has not recovered to this day). She first wrote the book that had been struggling for years to get out (The Magpie's Guide to Montalcino) and then spent a fair amount of time on promotional tours.  She also began doing consulting work which drew on her winery experience and expertise. 

Shortly after Richard Parsons bought Il Palazzone (2002, to be exact), Laura's father, Martin Gray, Head of the Department of English Studies at the University of Stirling, founded Learn Italy: "a small British company based in Oxford, offering study holidays that combine relaxation with learning" with a focus on Italy. Martin has, through the years, encouraged Laura to become involved in the business. She had an excuse: she was busy running Il Palazzone. Well she no longer had that excuse so she is helping run Learn Italy "navigating the organizational aspects, and accompanying most trips."

I was unaware of this aspect of Laura's life until she commented on one of my many online art posts. In the ensuing discussion I found out about her interest in art, the fact that she had just completed a Renaissance art course, and her involvement with Learn Italy. I requested a catalog and, upon receipt, immediately homed in on the "In the Footsteps of Piero della Francesca" offering which promised "Visits to find his paintings in Arezzo, Sanseplocro, Urbino, Perugia, and Monterchi." I was in.

Learn Italy did an awesome job of prepping us for the tour, including providing us with a list of material to read ahead of time.

In addition, I pursued other sources of information. For example I watched a number of You Tube videos including:

• In the Footseps of Piero della Francesca, Muscarelle Museum of Art
• Piero della Francesca: A quiet revolutionary, National Gallery
• Frick Collection Lectures around its 2013 Piero della Francesca exhibition.

In addition to the above I sought out Piero della Francesca holdings in museums for deeper study. I began with the Frick holdings.

The Frick Collection and The Augustinian Altarpiece

I encountered four Piero della Francesca pieces on my visit to the re-opening of the Frick Collection in April of 2025.  Picture-taking is not allowed at the Frick so I have used publicly available images to represent the Piero paintings that  I have viewed at that institution. All of these pieces were derived from the Augustinian Altarpiece (discussed later).

Piero della Francesca, Saint Augustinian,
Polyptych of Saint Augustine,1469,
tempera on wood, 39 x 28 cm,
The Frick Collection, NY. Viewed in situ 4/17/25.

The Augustinian Nun (Saint Monica),
Polyptych of Saint Augustine, 1469,
tempera on wood, 39 x 28 cm,
The Frick Collection, NY. Viewed in situ 4/17/25

Crucifixion, Polyptych of St. Augustine”, 1469, tempera
on wood, 37.47 x 41.12 cm, The Frick Collection, NY. 
Viewed in situ 4/17/25.

Saint John the Evangelist,
1454–69
Oil and tempera with traces of gold
on poplar panel 134 x 62.2 cm
The Frick Collection, New York.
Viewed in situ 4/17/25

In addition to the pieces at the Frick, I caught another piece from the Augustinian Altarpiece at the National Gallery in Washington, D.C. The piece, Saint Apollonia, is shown below.

Piero della Francesca, Saint Apollonia,
Polyptych of Saint Augustine, 1469,
tempera on wood, 39 x 28 cm,
National Gallery of Art, Washington. 
Seen in situ 8/26/25.

Further investigation showed that Frick had hosted an exhibition of 7 pieces of the Augustinian Altarpiece — six of which are based in the US — in 2013 and I dove into the archives to study the work done around that exhibition. 

In 1454, Angelo di Giovanni di Simone d'Angelo commissioned a polyptych from Piero della Francesca for the High Altar of St Agostino in Borgo Sansepolchro. The polyptych was intended to fulfill the wishes of his late brother Simone and his widow Giovanna to procure spiritual benefits for the donor and his forbears.

The structural framework of the altarpiece had a history prior to Piero's storied work. The Franciscans had had the structure built in the early 1430s to support paintings by Antonio d'Anghari and Piero had worked with him to gesso the piece. The effort was abandoned after the Franciscans hired Sassetta to do the work instead.

In 1451 the Franciscans sold the framework to Angelo Giovanni di Simone. It was more than 40 years old when Piero began working on it as the mainstay of the Augustinian High Altar. The piece was completed in 1469 and served as the High Altar until it was disassembled in 1555 when the Augustinians moved. The 30 panels were dispersed, with eight currently housed in institutions in Europe and the US.

Previous attempts  have been made to unite the surviving pieces. The most successful, prior to the Poldi Pozzoli effort, was the Frick exhibition which displayed all of the pieces with the exception of the Poldi holding. When the Frick announced its pending closure for renovation, Poldi Pozzoli reached out to that institution and other holders with hosting requests. Those requests were granted and the pieces were reunited in an exhibition at Poldi Pozzi that ran from March 20 to June 24, 2024.

Baptism of Christ

I encountered Baptism of Christ at the National Gallery. The analysis included on the chart below draws heavily on the museum’s write-ups plus associated lectures.

Armed with the above, we launched into the program. I will report on same in upcoming posts.

Caravaggio: Riding the wave

I visited the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition earlier this year in Rome and had a number of issues with it. One of my peeves was the organization of painter's oeuvre.  In a series of posts, I am attempting to place the paintings from the 2025 exhibition, and Caravaggio works that I have seen post that visit, into a more easily understood framework. This post continues that series.  

Caravaggio's work in the Contarelli Chapel received widespread acclaim and lifted him up on a wave that he rode with gusto until he came crashing back to earth in 1606. 

The first evidence of Caravaggio's newfound fame was a commission from Monsignor Tibero Cesari -- Treasurer-General to Pope Clement VIII -- to provide two paintings for the side panels of the Cesari Chapel of the Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo. Cesari had recently bought the patronage rights to the chapel and commissioned Carracci and Caravaggio to provide the necessary artwork. Caravaggio's two paintings were supposed to commemorate Saints Peter and Paul but his first two submittals (Crucifixion of Saint Peter, c. 1600 - 1601 and Conversion of Saul, c. 1600 - 01) were not accepted. It is thought that Caravaggio painted the pieces prior to getting accurate measurements and the finished paintings did not fit the space. 

Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo

These two paintings were subsequently bought by the Catholic Cardinal Giacomo Sennesia with the surviving one -- Conversion of Saul -- now resident in the Nicoletta Odescalchi Collection and shown at Caravaggio 2025. The two rejected paintings were replaced with Conversion on the Way to Damascus, 1601 and Crucifixion of St Peter, 1601. Both of these paintings were accepted and are present in the named chapel to this day.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Conversion of Saul, 1600 - 01
(Nicoletta Odescalchi collection, Rome;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

The Conversion of St. Paul has the belly of the horse as the central point with St Paul almost out of the picture at the bottom of the frame. The foreshortened St Paul is held down by the power of the blinding light while the groom seems to be less aware than the horse of what is happening. 

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Conversion on the Way to Damascus, 1601
(Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome;
viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

According to Dr Ruggiero, the Crucifixion of St. Peter is one of the most moving works in the history of art. The burliness of the models suggest neighborhood recruits and the entire scene is rendered up close and personal to the viewer. The single rock is the only item that gives a sense of where we are. Dr Ruggiero suggested that it could also be a play on Peter as the rock on which the church will be built.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Crucifixion of St Peter, 1601
(Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome;
viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

Neither of the two Cerasi Chapel paintings were included in the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition.

Two of Jesus' disciples were walking to Emmaus and are joined by a third traveler. This traveler is Jesus but he remains unrecognized until he reveals himself to the disciples while they are having dinner at an Inn in the town of Emmaus. According to the National Gallery, The Supper at Emmaus, 1601 was "painted at the height of Caravaggio's fame," was recorded at the Villa Borghese (Rome) in 1650 (likely having been in the collection of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, who died in 1633), and listed in a Borghese inventory of 1693.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Supper at
Emmaus, 1601 (National Gallery of Art, London;
viewed in situ, 12/5/2024)

The museum sees the painting as "among his most impressive domestic religious pictures." The symbolism associated with the painting is illustrated below.

The Taking of Christ was painted for the Roman Marquis Ciriaco Mattei and continued the flurry of commissions that fell into Caravaggio's lap following his Contarelli Chapel success. The figures, according to the National Gallery of Ireland (the home of the painting), are placed close to the picture plane and "a strong light-and-dark contrast" gives the scene an" extraordinary sense of drama." In the painting, Judas has identified Jesus with a kiss and the Temple Guards are moving in for the arrest. John The Evangelist flees the scene in disarray at the far left while Caravaggio peers in on the far right.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
The Taking of Christ, 1602
(National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

This painting has led a storied life. It remained in the Mattei Family for over 200 years. By the second half of the 18th Century a number of the Mattei paintings were reattributed, including the Caravaggio which was attributed to a Dutch Caravaggiste named Gerrit van Honthorst. In 1602 the painting was sold to William Hamilton Nisbett, a wealthy Scottish art collector doing business in Rome. The painting remained in his family for 119 years after which it was sold at auction in 1921 and again in 1922. Post the final auction it was held by Major Charles Hubert Francis Noel. In 1924 it was acquired by Dr Marie Lea-Wilson who brought it to Ireland. In the 1930s Dr Lea-Wilson presented the painting to the Jesuit Fathers of Leeson Street in Dublin where it hung in their dining room for 50 years. In 1990 Father Noel Barber contacted the National Gallery of Ireland to have its holdings assessed. Three years of careful study followed and the painting was once again attributed to Caravaggio and was placed on long-term loan to the National Galley of Ireland.

Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness, 1602 - 04, is one of about eight Caravaggio paintings dealing with this topic. The painting was initially commissioned by the banker Ottavio Costa who thought to send it to a small church in Liguria. He was unable to let the painting go, however, and kept it with him in Rome all his life.

The subject is shown "sitting on a rock, leaning on his reed cross, caught in. a moment of deep meditation. Light and shadow, engulfing the ribcage and falling across the eyes, wrestle on the figure of this saint ..."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness, c. 1602 - 04
(The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

In Caravaggio's Sacrifice of Isaac, a black-winged angel stays Abraham's knife-wielding right hand while Isaac stares out at us with a look of abject terror and a scream to match. The sheep looks imploringly at Abraham as if to say "You've got the wrong guy buddy."The action is taking place on high ground as there are buildings below the event level.While this event took place somewhere in today's Middle East, the background is reminiscent of a Renaissance Tuscan countryside.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Sacrifice of Isaac, 1603 - 04 (Uffizi, Florence;
viewed in situ, 10/2/2025)

Another treatment of John the Baptist in the wilderness (1604 - 06). This one features a younger-faced John stripped of his ever-present camel skin robe and with elements of the cross cut off by the edge of the painting.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
John the Baptist (John in the Wilderness), c. 1604 - 1606
(Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

In 1603 Ermete Cavalleti became patron of the Chapel of the Madonna of Loreto in the Basilica di Sant'Eustachio and commissioned a painting from Caravaggio which would represent the Madonna of the Pilgrims (also known as the Madonna of Loreto). The final product was placed in the chapel at the beginning of 1606.

Basilica di Sant'Eustachio

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Madonna of the Pilgrims (Madonna of Loreto),
1604 - 06 (Sant'Eustachio, Rome;
viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

It was shortly after the completion of the Madonna of Loreto that things came crashing down around Caravaggio's head. He had always been on the wrong side of the law (Google Arts and Culture):

• He was in and out of prison
• He carried a sword
• He loafed about taverns
• He did not pay his rent for 6 months
• He harassed women
• He harassed anyone who slighted him
• He assaulted waiters, notaries and public officers.

But all that paled in comparison to the events of May 28th, 1606 when he killed Ranuccio Tomassoni in a duel and was sentenced to death by beheading. Caravaggio had been befriended by Costanza, daughter  of Marcantonio II of the famed and respected Colonna Family, and had visited the family palace in Rome in the past. And it was there that he sought refuge. 

At this time Caravaggio was no longer riding the wave; he was now embarked on the life of a man on the run.

Caravaggio: Scaling the Heights

The Caravaggio 2025 exhibition placed the paintings on show into categories with which I remain less-than-thrilled. For example, the paintings presented under the heading “Invigorating the Dark Shades,” are, to my mind, actually a subset of the earliest-mentioned category “Making a Name for Himself in Rome” because Caravaggio did not really become widely known until after his completion of the paintings in the Contarelli Chapel. 

 I traveled to a number of churches in Rome — the homes of these period pieces — so that (i) I could have pictorial evidence of their existence and (ii) to slot them into this discussion of the works of the Master. I title these paintings that bring Caravaggio fame “Caravaggio: Scaling the Heights.”

The first of these paintings was installed at the Contarelli Chapel of San Luis dei Francesi. This chapel was named after Matteo Contarelli, a Frenchman from Anjou and Cardinal Datary for Pope Gregory XIII. Contarelli had personally been involved with the design of the chapel since 1563 but died in 1585 prior to its completion. After his death, the Executor of his estate, and the congregation, resumed the project sometime between 1591 and 1593. They modified the initial plan to instead have Cavalier d’ Arpino work in the vaults and lunettes while the Flemish sculptor Jacob Cobert would work on the altar statue. This plan was itself abandoned in favor of a plan for paintings by Caravaggio. 

In 1599, thanks to the intervention of Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, Caravaggio received his first public commission to paint canvases for the Contarelli chapel in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. The cycle, focused on the life of Saint Matthew, was not only a challenge for Merisi, who had to grapple with paintings of "historia" for the first time, it represents a crucial watershed in his production because, from that moment on, Caravaggio painted almost only religious paintings, and in them, we begin to see that "tragic" style that came to characterize his production. This chapel features some of the most emblematic religious-themed works of the mature Merisi.

The first painting that he did was the Martydom of St. Matthew. The painting captures the scene after Matthew had already been struck. He is reaching upwards for the palm, the symbol of martyrdom. Caravaggio can be seen leaning in from the back left. 

Contarelli Chapel

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 
The Martyrdom of St. Matthew, 1599 - 1602
(San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome; viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

According to the literature accompanying the display, “The great innovation … lies in the use of light in the composition: the natural light coming through the window and the light masterfully rendered in the painting by Caravaggio’s genius.”

The most famous of the paintings in the chapel, according to Dr. Rocky Ruggiero, is the Calling of St. Matthew. 

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 
The Calling of St. Matthew, 1599 - 1600
(San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome; viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

I have previously analyzed this painting and present the results herein.

He had two passes at St. Matthew and the Angel for the altarpiece. The first effort was rejected because it did not present St Matthew in the finest light. That piece was destroyed in Berlin in 1942. The second version is shown below where St Matthew writes his gospel, inspired by an angel.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 
St. Matthew and the Angel, 1602
(San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome; viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

By this time Carravaggio had gained critical and popular acclaim.  The next phase of his career, as I see it, was him "riding the wave."

Judith beheading Holofernes: Caravaggio and Artemisia Gentileschi

Both Caravaggio and Artemisia Gentileschi (twice) executed paintings of the biblical story of Judith beheading the Assyrian general Holofernes. I will compare these representations but will first document why this particular comparison is especially interesting.

Artemisia Gentileschi was a Caravaggisti. Caravaggio had been too busy getting into trouble and running from the law -- and developing phenomenal works of art during the dead periods --to establish a school or to take on students. Rather, subsequent adherence to his style was organic.

According to worldatlas.com, "Caravaggisti art refers to an artistic movement that resulted in a new Baroque painting style" based on the work of Caravaggio and characterized by the use of tenebrism ("the use of profound shadowing and high contrast between areas of light and dark") and chiaroscuro (use of "light and shadows to create a three-dimensional appearance").

The painters who adopted Caravaggio's techniques were called Caravaggisti. Some adopted his techniques for a portion of their careers while others devoted their entire lives to modeling his style. 

The chart below shows the elements of Caravaggio's style in the southwestern quadrant and its further spread along the bottom portion. Style adherents are shown in the upper portions of the chart.

Orazio Gentileschi, the father of Artemisia, became a close associate of Caravaggio after seeing the latter’s 1600 paintings. Gentileschi’s paintings post-1600 began to incorporate elements of the Caravaggio approach (NGA, Christiansen and Mann):

• Use of models
• Dramatic lighting
• Simplified compositional structures with a restricted number of figures close to the picture plane
• Use of dramatic, unconventional gestures and monumental composition
• Uncompromising realism and contemporary representation of figure types.

Even though Orazio backslid, he still enjoys special prominence when discussions arise re Caravaggisti active in the first two decades of the 17th century. He was the first to respond to the shift but he also influenced others, notably Bartolomeo Lavarozzi (1590 - 1625), Orazio Riminaldi (1593 - 1630), and Giovann Francesco Guerreiri (1589 - 1655/1659), Italians all. He also influenced Hendrik Terbruggen who the took the style back to Utrecht. But, by far, his most prominent student was his daughter Artemisia.

The Story behind the Paintings

Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had been sent by King Nebuchadnezzar to “teach the Israelites a lesson” after they failed to lend assistance in one of his recent wars. Holofernes laid siege to the city of Bethulia, compromising its water sources. The inhabitants were in favor of yielding to the general but the leaders asked for five days, hoping that assistance would materialize.

During this waiting period the widow Judith entered Holofernes’ camp, along with her maid, under the pretext of being able to provide information that would aid his efforts. Holofernes became enamored with Judith — her intent — and prepared a sumptuous meal that, he hoped, would be a seduction vehicle. He drank too much at the dinner, however and fell asleep. Judith took the opportunity to use his sword to behead him and took his head back to the leaders of Bethulia. The shock of losing their leader in this manner eventually led to the defeat of the Assyrians.

The Paintings

Judith beheading Holofernes was Caravaggio’s first historical work. It was commissioned by Ottavia Costa, a Genoese banker. Costa was so enamored with the painting that he stipulated its inalienability in his will. It was lost to public view for several centuries until the restorer Pico Cettini reported in 1951 that he had seen it in a home. A little over 20 years later the Italian state bought the piece and exhibited it in Palazzo Barberini.

According to barberinicorsini.org, the light in the scene falls from the top left, “striking Judith’s figure in full.” Unlike the story relayed in the book of Judith, Caravaggio has Abra, Judith’s maidservant, in the room and as a wrinkled old woman. This “haggard attendant merely looks on, her eyes wide with disbelief.” Judith appears to “gracefully” recoil from her gruesome task.

Artemisia painted two versions of this story: 1611 - 1612 and 1629. As a young woman she had been raped by her teacher Agostino Tasi and, while it is believed that she was influenced by Caravaggio’s version, the cold brutality exhibited in these paintings gives a sense that she is calling on something deeper: the cold rage of the violated.

Smart History calls this “… one of the bloodiest and most vivid depictions of the scene … surpassing the version by Caravaggio … in its immediacy and striking realism.” While Judith is a shrinking violet in Caravaggio’s version — and Abra is barely there — Artemisia’s versions depict two strong young women working cooperatively to defeat an opposing force.

While the flow of blood from Caravaggio is insipid to the point of ridicule, Artemisia’s blood flow is vivid, plentiful, and explosive, flowing in multiple rivulets down the face of the mattress.

In the Gentileschi paintings the figures are directly in front of us — great for dramatic effect — and appear as though highlighted by a spotlight.

In a funny kind of way, if one can get funny about a beheading, Caravaggio’s painting is somewhat more sensitive and “feminine” in its portrayal of the scene while Gentileschi’s is much more hunter-like.

Caravaggio: "Invigorating the dark shades"

My most recent post showcased paintings that the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition grouped under the heading "Making a name for himself." I took the liberty of including Boy bitten by a Lizard and The Musicians, Caravaggio paintings both, under this same banner even though I had viewed them at their home institutions, rather than at the exhibition. The key reasons for their inclusions were (i) I had seen them in person and (ii) their completion dates fell within the same timeframes as the other paintings in this group.

The second grouping of paintings at Caravaggio 2025 was called "Invigorating the dark shades." I will come back to the meaning of this in a bit but at this point I would argue that this grouping is a subset of the first grouping, based on completion dates, because Caravaggio did not "arrive" until after the introduction of the Contarelli paintings.

The first painting in this grouping is Portrait of Monsignor Maffeo Barberini as Promontory Apostolic. According to the accompanying literature, this portrait of the future Pope Urban VIII has always had its attribution to Caravaggio "debated by scholars."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Portrait of Monsignor Maffeo Barberini as
Protonotary Apostolic, 1598 - 99
(Private collection, Firenze; viewed at
the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/2025)

According to Caravaggio 2025, Saint Catherine of Alexander "represents a major turning point in Caravaggio's artistic production." According to painter and biographer Giovanni Pietro Bellori, "... with this piece, Merisi begins to invigorate the dark shades," initiating a process which culminates in the Contarelli Chapel paintings.

This painting utilizes the interplay between light and dark, a technique called chiarascuro, which, when applied to Caravaggio, is called Tenebrism. Chiarascuro is "the sharp contrast between light and shadow." Tenebrism is characterized by "a type of violent illumination" -- usually artificial -- with "greater prominence to the illuminated area on which is placed a powerful focus of directed light." This was generally used in scenes of a religious nature and added a strong sense of drama to the depiction.

The model used in this painting is the same person used in Martha and Mary Magdalene and Judith beheading Holofernes.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Saint Catherine of Alexandria, 1598 - 99
(Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza,
Madrid; viewed at the Caravaggio 2025
exhibition, 7/18/2025)

The second Barberini portrait in the Carvaggio 2025 exhibition is broadly attributed to the painter (not the case for the first one) and is one of the few surviving portraits done by his hand. In his left hand Barberini is clutching (probably) the piece of parchment which "bears the decree appointing him Cleric of the Apostolic Chamber  in 1597..." This was the first time that the painting had ever been shown publicly and, according to Caravaggio 2025, "represents a benchmark for all seventeenth-century portraiture and one of the finest examples of this painting genre."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Portrait of Maffeo Barberini, 1598 - 99
(private collection; viewed at the
Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/2025)

While the two preceding paintings both have very dark backgrounds, the background of Martha and Mary Magdalene begins with a blue-brown to the left and then gets progressively darker as you move rightward. Nonetheless, subjects are brightly illuminated and stand in stark contrast to their surroundings.

The Caravaggio organizers speculate that this painting may heve been done for Olimpia Aldobrandini, a rich and powerful Italian noblewoman. It shows the conversion of Mary Magdalene "sealed by symbols of marriage such as an orange flower and and a golden ring" with Martha onlooking. The reflection of the light source is captured in the very dark convex mirror.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Martha and
Mary Magdalene, 1598 - 99
(Gallerie Nazionale di Arte Antica, Palazzo Barberini,
Rome; viewed at the Caravaggio 2025
exhibition, 7/18/2025)

Judith beheading Holofernes is a raw, violent painting which captures the fear and horror of impending death on the one hand and clinical calmness from Judith on the other. The light defines the bulging muscles, upturned eyes, and gurgly scream of the victim while the maid clutches a bag, the waiting repository for the head. According to Carravagio 2025, "the focal point of the scene and Caravaggio's point of interest is Holofernes' blood-curdling cry, making it one of the first paintings to inaugurate the artist's tragic style, resonating with the question as to the line between life and death."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Judith Beheading
Holofernes, 1599 - 1600 (Gallerie Nazionale di Arte Antica,
Palazzo Barberini, Rome; viewed at the Caravaggio 2025
exhibition, 7/18/2025)

The Sacred and the tragic between Naples and Rome will be the next category covered.