In the Steps of Piero della Francesca: The prequel

I was on a 2011 Bordeaux Index tour of Bolgheri and Montalcino when a Twitter friend (yes, I too used to be on that platform) Laura Rose-Gray, then General Manager of boutique Brunello di Montalcino winery Il Palazzone, reached out to invite me to visit the winery. By this time we had completed our visits in Montalcino and were well on our way to Florence so I regretfully declined and promised that I would do so the next time that I was in the area. 

The author with Laura Rose-Gray in Perugia

And thus began a long and fruitful (for me) online relationship. Laura was critical to my writings on Brunello di Montalcino by providing insights into trends, movers and shakers, and appellation and terroir issues. My writings in this area would have been fewer, and of lesser quality, if I had not had the good fortune of crossing virtual paths with her. I did eventually visit the estate but, a few days before my arrival, Laura's son fell ill and she had to be away. Her good friend Esther Juergens hosted me on the trip in her stead.

Il Palazzone had been owned since 2000 by the former Time Warner Executive Richard Parsons. He elevated Laura to GM in 2008. He sold the business in 2021 and the new owners wanted to be more active in running the place so Laura moved on (My Montalcino output has not recovered to this day). She first wrote the book that had been struggling for years to get out (The Magpie's Guide to Montalcino) and then spent a fair amount of time on promotional tours.  She also began doing consulting work which drew on her winery experience and expertise. 

Shortly after Richard Parsons bought Il Palazzone (2002, to be exact), Laura's father, Martin Gray, Head of the Department of English Studies at the University of Stirling, founded Learn Italy: "a small British company based in Oxford, offering study holidays that combine relaxation with learning" with a focus on Italy. Martin has, through the years, encouraged Laura to become involved in the business. She had an excuse: she was busy running Il Palazzone. Well she no longer had that excuse so she is helping run Learn Italy "navigating the organizational aspects, and accompanying most trips."

I was unaware of this aspect of Laura's life until she commented on one of my many online art posts. In the ensuing discussion I found out about her interest in art, the fact that she had just completed a Renaissance art course, and her involvement with Learn Italy. I requested a catalog and, upon receipt, immediately homed in on the "In the Footsteps of Piero della Francesca" offering which promised "Visits to find his paintings in Arezzo, Sanseplocro, Urbino, Perugia, and Monterchi." I was in.

Learn Italy did an awesome job of prepping us for the tour, including providing us with a list of material to read ahead of time.

In addition, I pursued other sources of information. For example I watched a number of You Tube videos including:

• In the Footseps of Piero della Francesca, Muscarelle Museum of Art
• Piero della Francesca: A quiet revolutionary, National Gallery
• Frick Collection Lectures around its 2013 Piero della Francesca exhibition.

In addition to the above I sought out Piero della Francesca holdings in museums for deeper study. I began with the Frick holdings.

The Frick Collection and The Augustinian Altarpiece

I encountered four Piero della Francesca pieces on my visit to the re-opening of the Frick Collection in April of 2025.  Picture-taking is not allowed at the Frick so I have used publicly available images to represent the Piero paintings that  I have viewed at that institution. All of these pieces were derived from the Augustinian Altarpiece (discussed later).

Piero della Francesca, Saint Augustinian,
Polyptych of Saint Augustine,1469,
tempera on wood, 39 x 28 cm,
The Frick Collection, NY. Viewed in situ 4/17/25.

The Augustinian Nun (Saint Monica),
Polyptych of Saint Augustine, 1469,
tempera on wood, 39 x 28 cm,
The Frick Collection, NY. Viewed in situ 4/17/25

Crucifixion, Polyptych of St. Augustine”, 1469, tempera
on wood, 37.47 x 41.12 cm, The Frick Collection, NY. 
Viewed in situ 4/17/25.

Saint John the Evangelist,
1454–69
Oil and tempera with traces of gold
on poplar panel 134 x 62.2 cm
The Frick Collection, New York.
Viewed in situ 4/17/25

In addition to the pieces at the Frick, I caught another piece from the Augustinian Altarpiece at the National Gallery in Washington, D.C. The piece, Saint Apollonia, is shown below.

Piero della Francesca, Saint Apollonia,
Polyptych of Saint Augustine, 1469,
tempera on wood, 39 x 28 cm,
National Gallery of Art, Washington. 
Seen in situ 8/26/25.

Further investigation showed that Frick had hosted an exhibition of 7 pieces of the Augustinian Altarpiece — six of which are based in the US — in 2013 and I dove into the archives to study the work done around that exhibition. 

In 1454, Angelo di Giovanni di Simone d'Angelo commissioned a polyptych from Piero della Francesca for the High Altar of St Agostino in Borgo Sansepolchro. The polyptych was intended to fulfill the wishes of his late brother Simone and his widow Giovanna to procure spiritual benefits for the donor and his forbears.

The structural framework of the altarpiece had a history prior to Piero's storied work. The Franciscans had had the structure built in the early 1430s to support paintings by Antonio d'Anghari and Piero had worked with him to gesso the piece. The effort was abandoned after the Franciscans hired Sassetta to do the work instead.

In 1451 the Franciscans sold the framework to Angelo Giovanni di Simone. It was more than 40 years old when Piero began working on it as the mainstay of the Augustinian High Altar. The piece was completed in 1469 and served as the High Altar until it was disassembled in 1555 when the Augustinians moved. The 30 panels were dispersed, with eight currently housed in institutions in Europe and the US.

Previous attempts  have been made to unite the surviving pieces. The most successful, prior to the Poldi Pozzoli effort, was the Frick exhibition which displayed all of the pieces with the exception of the Poldi holding. When the Frick announced its pending closure for renovation, Poldi Pozzoli reached out to that institution and other holders with hosting requests. Those requests were granted and the pieces were reunited in an exhibition at Poldi Pozzi that ran from March 20 to June 24, 2024.

Baptism of Christ

I encountered Baptism of Christ at the National Gallery. The analysis included on the chart below draws heavily on the museum’s write-ups plus associated lectures.

Armed with the above, we launched into the program. I will report on same in upcoming posts.

Caravaggio: Riding the wave

I visited the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition earlier this year in Rome and had a number of issues with it. One of my peeves was the organization of painter's oeuvre.  In a series of posts, I am attempting to place the paintings from the 2025 exhibition, and Caravaggio works that I have seen post that visit, into a more easily understood framework. This post continues that series.  

Caravaggio's work in the Contarelli Chapel received widespread acclaim and lifted him up on a wave that he rode with gusto until he came crashing back to earth in 1606. 

The first evidence of Caravaggio's newfound fame was a commission from Monsignor Tibero Cesari -- Treasurer-General to Pope Clement VIII -- to provide two paintings for the side panels of the Cesari Chapel of the Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo. Cesari had recently bought the patronage rights to the chapel and commissioned Carracci and Caravaggio to provide the necessary artwork. Caravaggio's two paintings were supposed to commemorate Saints Peter and Paul but his first two submittals (Crucifixion of Saint Peter, c. 1600 - 1601 and Conversion of Saul, c. 1600 - 01) were not accepted. It is thought that Caravaggio painted the pieces prior to getting accurate measurements and the finished paintings did not fit the space. 

Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo

These two paintings were subsequently bought by the Catholic Cardinal Giacomo Sennesia with the surviving one -- Conversion of Saul -- now resident in the Nicoletta Odescalchi Collection and shown at Caravaggio 2025. The two rejected paintings were replaced with Conversion on the Way to Damascus, 1601 and Crucifixion of St Peter, 1601. Both of these paintings were accepted and are present in the named chapel to this day.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Conversion of Saul, 1600 - 01
(Nicoletta Odescalchi collection, Rome;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

The Conversion of St. Paul has the belly of the horse as the central point with St Paul almost out of the picture at the bottom of the frame. The foreshortened St Paul is held down by the power of the blinding light while the groom seems to be less aware than the horse of what is happening. 

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Conversion on the Way to Damascus, 1601
(Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome;
viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

According to Dr Ruggiero, the Crucifixion of St. Peter is one of the most moving works in the history of art. The burliness of the models suggest neighborhood recruits and the entire scene is rendered up close and personal to the viewer. The single rock is the only item that gives a sense of where we are. Dr Ruggiero suggested that it could also be a play on Peter as the rock on which the church will be built.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Crucifixion of St Peter, 1601
(Basilica di Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome;
viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

Neither of the two Cerasi Chapel paintings were included in the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition.

Two of Jesus' disciples were walking to Emmaus and are joined by a third traveler. This traveler is Jesus but he remains unrecognized until he reveals himself to the disciples while they are having dinner at an Inn in the town of Emmaus. According to the National Gallery, The Supper at Emmaus, 1601 was "painted at the height of Caravaggio's fame," was recorded at the Villa Borghese (Rome) in 1650 (likely having been in the collection of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, who died in 1633), and listed in a Borghese inventory of 1693.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Supper at
Emmaus, 1601 (National Gallery of Art, London;
viewed in situ, 12/5/2024)

The museum sees the painting as "among his most impressive domestic religious pictures." The symbolism associated with the painting is illustrated below.

The Taking of Christ was painted for the Roman Marquis Ciriaco Mattei and continued the flurry of commissions that fell into Caravaggio's lap following his Contarelli Chapel success. The figures, according to the National Gallery of Ireland (the home of the painting), are placed close to the picture plane and "a strong light-and-dark contrast" gives the scene an" extraordinary sense of drama." In the painting, Judas has identified Jesus with a kiss and the Temple Guards are moving in for the arrest. John The Evangelist flees the scene in disarray at the far left while Caravaggio peers in on the far right.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
The Taking of Christ, 1602
(National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

This painting has led a storied life. It remained in the Mattei Family for over 200 years. By the second half of the 18th Century a number of the Mattei paintings were reattributed, including the Caravaggio which was attributed to a Dutch Caravaggiste named Gerrit van Honthorst. In 1602 the painting was sold to William Hamilton Nisbett, a wealthy Scottish art collector doing business in Rome. The painting remained in his family for 119 years after which it was sold at auction in 1921 and again in 1922. Post the final auction it was held by Major Charles Hubert Francis Noel. In 1924 it was acquired by Dr Marie Lea-Wilson who brought it to Ireland. In the 1930s Dr Lea-Wilson presented the painting to the Jesuit Fathers of Leeson Street in Dublin where it hung in their dining room for 50 years. In 1990 Father Noel Barber contacted the National Gallery of Ireland to have its holdings assessed. Three years of careful study followed and the painting was once again attributed to Caravaggio and was placed on long-term loan to the National Galley of Ireland.

Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness, 1602 - 04, is one of about eight Caravaggio paintings dealing with this topic. The painting was initially commissioned by the banker Ottavio Costa who thought to send it to a small church in Liguria. He was unable to let the painting go, however, and kept it with him in Rome all his life.

The subject is shown "sitting on a rock, leaning on his reed cross, caught in. a moment of deep meditation. Light and shadow, engulfing the ribcage and falling across the eyes, wrestle on the figure of this saint ..."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Saint John the Baptist in the Wilderness, c. 1602 - 04
(The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

In Caravaggio's Sacrifice of Isaac, a black-winged angel stays Abraham's knife-wielding right hand while Isaac stares out at us with a look of abject terror and a scream to match. The sheep looks imploringly at Abraham as if to say "You've got the wrong guy buddy."The action is taking place on high ground as there are buildings below the event level.While this event took place somewhere in today's Middle East, the background is reminiscent of a Renaissance Tuscan countryside.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Sacrifice of Isaac, 1603 - 04 (Uffizi, Florence;
viewed in situ, 10/2/2025)

Another treatment of John the Baptist in the wilderness (1604 - 06). This one features a younger-faced John stripped of his ever-present camel skin robe and with elements of the cross cut off by the edge of the painting.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
John the Baptist (John in the Wilderness), c. 1604 - 1606
(Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome;
viewed at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition,
7/18/2025)

In 1603 Ermete Cavalleti became patron of the Chapel of the Madonna of Loreto in the Basilica di Sant'Eustachio and commissioned a painting from Caravaggio which would represent the Madonna of the Pilgrims (also known as the Madonna of Loreto). The final product was placed in the chapel at the beginning of 1606.

Basilica di Sant'Eustachio

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Madonna of the Pilgrims (Madonna of Loreto),
1604 - 06 (Sant'Eustachio, Rome;
viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

It was shortly after the completion of the Madonna of Loreto that things came crashing down around Caravaggio's head. He had always been on the wrong side of the law (Google Arts and Culture):

• He was in and out of prison
• He carried a sword
• He loafed about taverns
• He did not pay his rent for 6 months
• He harassed women
• He harassed anyone who slighted him
• He assaulted waiters, notaries and public officers.

But all that paled in comparison to the events of May 28th, 1606 when he killed Ranuccio Tomassoni in a duel and was sentenced to death by beheading. Caravaggio had been befriended by Costanza, daughter  of Marcantonio II of the famed and respected Colonna Family, and had visited the family palace in Rome in the past. And it was there that he sought refuge. 

At this time Caravaggio was no longer riding the wave; he was now embarked on the life of a man on the run.

Caravaggio: Scaling the Heights

The Caravaggio 2025 exhibition placed the paintings on show into categories with which I remain less-than-thrilled. For example, the paintings presented under the heading “Invigorating the Dark Shades,” are, to my mind, actually a subset of the earliest-mentioned category “Making a Name for Himself in Rome” because Caravaggio did not really become widely known until after his completion of the paintings in the Contarelli Chapel. 

 I traveled to a number of churches in Rome — the homes of these period pieces — so that (i) I could have pictorial evidence of their existence and (ii) to slot them into this discussion of the works of the Master. I title these paintings that bring Caravaggio fame “Caravaggio: Scaling the Heights.”

The first of these paintings was installed at the Contarelli Chapel of San Luis dei Francesi. This chapel was named after Matteo Contarelli, a Frenchman from Anjou and Cardinal Datary for Pope Gregory XIII. Contarelli had personally been involved with the design of the chapel since 1563 but died in 1585 prior to its completion. After his death, the Executor of his estate, and the congregation, resumed the project sometime between 1591 and 1593. They modified the initial plan to instead have Cavalier d’ Arpino work in the vaults and lunettes while the Flemish sculptor Jacob Cobert would work on the altar statue. This plan was itself abandoned in favor of a plan for paintings by Caravaggio. 

In 1599, thanks to the intervention of Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, Caravaggio received his first public commission to paint canvases for the Contarelli chapel in the church of San Luigi dei Francesi. The cycle, focused on the life of Saint Matthew, was not only a challenge for Merisi, who had to grapple with paintings of "historia" for the first time, it represents a crucial watershed in his production because, from that moment on, Caravaggio painted almost only religious paintings, and in them, we begin to see that "tragic" style that came to characterize his production. This chapel features some of the most emblematic religious-themed works of the mature Merisi.

The first painting that he did was the Martydom of St. Matthew. The painting captures the scene after Matthew had already been struck. He is reaching upwards for the palm, the symbol of martyrdom. Caravaggio can be seen leaning in from the back left. 

Contarelli Chapel

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 
The Martyrdom of St. Matthew, 1599 - 1602
(San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome; viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

According to the literature accompanying the display, “The great innovation … lies in the use of light in the composition: the natural light coming through the window and the light masterfully rendered in the painting by Caravaggio’s genius.”

The most famous of the paintings in the chapel, according to Dr. Rocky Ruggiero, is the Calling of St. Matthew. 

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 
The Calling of St. Matthew, 1599 - 1600
(San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome; viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

I have previously analyzed this painting and present the results herein.

He had two passes at St. Matthew and the Angel for the altarpiece. The first effort was rejected because it did not present St Matthew in the finest light. That piece was destroyed in Berlin in 1942. The second version is shown below where St Matthew writes his gospel, inspired by an angel.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 
St. Matthew and the Angel, 1602
(San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome; viewed in situ, 9/24/2025)

By this time Carravaggio had gained critical and popular acclaim.  The next phase of his career, as I see it, was him "riding the wave."

Judith beheading Holofernes: Caravaggio and Artemisia Gentileschi

Both Caravaggio and Artemisia Gentileschi (twice) executed paintings of the biblical story of Judith beheading the Assyrian general Holofernes. I will compare these representations but will first document why this particular comparison is especially interesting.

Artemisia Gentileschi was a Caravaggisti. Caravaggio had been too busy getting into trouble and running from the law -- and developing phenomenal works of art during the dead periods --to establish a school or to take on students. Rather, subsequent adherence to his style was organic.

According to worldatlas.com, "Caravaggisti art refers to an artistic movement that resulted in a new Baroque painting style" based on the work of Caravaggio and characterized by the use of tenebrism ("the use of profound shadowing and high contrast between areas of light and dark") and chiaroscuro (use of "light and shadows to create a three-dimensional appearance").

The painters who adopted Caravaggio's techniques were called Caravaggisti. Some adopted his techniques for a portion of their careers while others devoted their entire lives to modeling his style. 

The chart below shows the elements of Caravaggio's style in the southwestern quadrant and its further spread along the bottom portion. Style adherents are shown in the upper portions of the chart.

Orazio Gentileschi, the father of Artemisia, became a close associate of Caravaggio after seeing the latter’s 1600 paintings. Gentileschi’s paintings post-1600 began to incorporate elements of the Caravaggio approach (NGA, Christiansen and Mann):

• Use of models
• Dramatic lighting
• Simplified compositional structures with a restricted number of figures close to the picture plane
• Use of dramatic, unconventional gestures and monumental composition
• Uncompromising realism and contemporary representation of figure types.

Even though Orazio backslid, he still enjoys special prominence when discussions arise re Caravaggisti active in the first two decades of the 17th century. He was the first to respond to the shift but he also influenced others, notably Bartolomeo Lavarozzi (1590 - 1625), Orazio Riminaldi (1593 - 1630), and Giovann Francesco Guerreiri (1589 - 1655/1659), Italians all. He also influenced Hendrik Terbruggen who the took the style back to Utrecht. But, by far, his most prominent student was his daughter Artemisia.

The Story behind the Paintings

Holofernes, an Assyrian general, had been sent by King Nebuchadnezzar to “teach the Israelites a lesson” after they failed to lend assistance in one of his recent wars. Holofernes laid siege to the city of Bethulia, compromising its water sources. The inhabitants were in favor of yielding to the general but the leaders asked for five days, hoping that assistance would materialize.

During this waiting period the widow Judith entered Holofernes’ camp, along with her maid, under the pretext of being able to provide information that would aid his efforts. Holofernes became enamored with Judith — her intent — and prepared a sumptuous meal that, he hoped, would be a seduction vehicle. He drank too much at the dinner, however and fell asleep. Judith took the opportunity to use his sword to behead him and took his head back to the leaders of Bethulia. The shock of losing their leader in this manner eventually led to the defeat of the Assyrians.

The Paintings

Judith beheading Holofernes was Caravaggio’s first historical work. It was commissioned by Ottavia Costa, a Genoese banker. Costa was so enamored with the painting that he stipulated its inalienability in his will. It was lost to public view for several centuries until the restorer Pico Cettini reported in 1951 that he had seen it in a home. A little over 20 years later the Italian state bought the piece and exhibited it in Palazzo Barberini.

According to barberinicorsini.org, the light in the scene falls from the top left, “striking Judith’s figure in full.” Unlike the story relayed in the book of Judith, Caravaggio has Abra, Judith’s maidservant, in the room and as a wrinkled old woman. This “haggard attendant merely looks on, her eyes wide with disbelief.” Judith appears to “gracefully” recoil from her gruesome task.

Artemisia painted two versions of this story: 1611 - 1612 and 1629. As a young woman she had been raped by her teacher Agostino Tasi and, while it is believed that she was influenced by Caravaggio’s version, the cold brutality exhibited in these paintings gives a sense that she is calling on something deeper: the cold rage of the violated.

Smart History calls this “… one of the bloodiest and most vivid depictions of the scene … surpassing the version by Caravaggio … in its immediacy and striking realism.” While Judith is a shrinking violet in Caravaggio’s version — and Abra is barely there — Artemisia’s versions depict two strong young women working cooperatively to defeat an opposing force.

While the flow of blood from Caravaggio is insipid to the point of ridicule, Artemisia’s blood flow is vivid, plentiful, and explosive, flowing in multiple rivulets down the face of the mattress.

In the Gentileschi paintings the figures are directly in front of us — great for dramatic effect — and appear as though highlighted by a spotlight.

In a funny kind of way, if one can get funny about a beheading, Caravaggio’s painting is somewhat more sensitive and “feminine” in its portrayal of the scene while Gentileschi’s is much more hunter-like.

Caravaggio: "Invigorating the dark shades"

My most recent post showcased paintings that the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition grouped under the heading "Making a name for himself." I took the liberty of including Boy bitten by a Lizard and The Musicians, Caravaggio paintings both, under this same banner even though I had viewed them at their home institutions, rather than at the exhibition. The key reasons for their inclusions were (i) I had seen them in person and (ii) their completion dates fell within the same timeframes as the other paintings in this group.

The second grouping of paintings at Caravaggio 2025 was called "Invigorating the dark shades." I will come back to the meaning of this in a bit but at this point I would argue that this grouping is a subset of the first grouping, based on completion dates, because Caravaggio did not "arrive" until after the introduction of the Contarelli paintings.

The first painting in this grouping is Portrait of Monsignor Maffeo Barberini as Promontory Apostolic. According to the accompanying literature, this portrait of the future Pope Urban VIII has always had its attribution to Caravaggio "debated by scholars."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Portrait of Monsignor Maffeo Barberini as
Protonotary Apostolic, 1598 - 99
(Private collection, Firenze; viewed at
the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/2025)

According to Caravaggio 2025, Saint Catherine of Alexander "represents a major turning point in Caravaggio's artistic production." According to painter and biographer Giovanni Pietro Bellori, "... with this piece, Merisi begins to invigorate the dark shades," initiating a process which culminates in the Contarelli Chapel paintings.

This painting utilizes the interplay between light and dark, a technique called chiarascuro, which, when applied to Caravaggio, is called Tenebrism. Chiarascuro is "the sharp contrast between light and shadow." Tenebrism is characterized by "a type of violent illumination" -- usually artificial -- with "greater prominence to the illuminated area on which is placed a powerful focus of directed light." This was generally used in scenes of a religious nature and added a strong sense of drama to the depiction.

The model used in this painting is the same person used in Martha and Mary Magdalene and Judith beheading Holofernes.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Saint Catherine of Alexandria, 1598 - 99
(Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza,
Madrid; viewed at the Caravaggio 2025
exhibition, 7/18/2025)

The second Barberini portrait in the Carvaggio 2025 exhibition is broadly attributed to the painter (not the case for the first one) and is one of the few surviving portraits done by his hand. In his left hand Barberini is clutching (probably) the piece of parchment which "bears the decree appointing him Cleric of the Apostolic Chamber  in 1597..." This was the first time that the painting had ever been shown publicly and, according to Caravaggio 2025, "represents a benchmark for all seventeenth-century portraiture and one of the finest examples of this painting genre."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Portrait of Maffeo Barberini, 1598 - 99
(private collection; viewed at the
Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/2025)

While the two preceding paintings both have very dark backgrounds, the background of Martha and Mary Magdalene begins with a blue-brown to the left and then gets progressively darker as you move rightward. Nonetheless, subjects are brightly illuminated and stand in stark contrast to their surroundings.

The Caravaggio organizers speculate that this painting may heve been done for Olimpia Aldobrandini, a rich and powerful Italian noblewoman. It shows the conversion of Mary Magdalene "sealed by symbols of marriage such as an orange flower and and a golden ring" with Martha onlooking. The reflection of the light source is captured in the very dark convex mirror.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Martha and
Mary Magdalene, 1598 - 99
(Gallerie Nazionale di Arte Antica, Palazzo Barberini,
Rome; viewed at the Caravaggio 2025
exhibition, 7/18/2025)

Judith beheading Holofernes is a raw, violent painting which captures the fear and horror of impending death on the one hand and clinical calmness from Judith on the other. The light defines the bulging muscles, upturned eyes, and gurgly scream of the victim while the maid clutches a bag, the waiting repository for the head. According to Carravagio 2025, "the focal point of the scene and Caravaggio's point of interest is Holofernes' blood-curdling cry, making it one of the first paintings to inaugurate the artist's tragic style, resonating with the question as to the line between life and death."

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Judith Beheading
Holofernes, 1599 - 1600 (Gallerie Nazionale di Arte Antica,
Palazzo Barberini, Rome; viewed at the Caravaggio 2025
exhibition, 7/18/2025)

The Sacred and the tragic between Naples and Rome will be the next category covered.

Caravaggio: Making a name for himself in Rome

The recent Caravaggio 2025 Exhibition at Palazzo Barberini in Rome curated the offerings on show into four major categories:(i) Making a Name in Rome; (ii) Invigorating the Dark Shadows; (iii) The Sacred and the Tragic Between Rome and Naples; and (iv) Endgame. I will arrange the Caravaggio paintings that I have personally seen over the course of the past year accordingly, beginning (in this post) with the first category.

Caravaggio was born in Milan but his family moved to Caravaggio, a little town in the north of Italy, to escape the plague (At this time the commune of Caravaggio was considered Venetian territory.). Caravaggio studied painting during his youth and his teacher was Simone Peterzano, one of the last students of the Venetian great Titian.

Caravaggio left his hometown in 1592 and made his way to Milan. Once there, he found it to be a "dog-eat-dog" environment and he got off to a quite rocky start. He was, like many other aspiring painters, forced to parade around the Piazza Navona with his works hung around him -- in sandwich-board fashion -- hoping that someone would notice his work and favor him with their patronage. 

According to Caravaggio 2025, starting in the summer of his arrival, Caravaggio moved to the workshop of the painter Guiseppe Cesari d'Arpino where he was "engaged in painting flowers and fruits." The partnership ended abruptly after 8 months. The work he did at d'Arpino's shop is reflected in the prominence of fruits and/or leaves in many of Caravaggio's early paintings.

Caravaggio's hunt for a patron bore fruit when he was "discovered" by Cardinal Francisco Maria del Monte, a close ally of the Medici family and, at that time, residing in the nearby Medici Palace. Based on the Cardinal's invitation, Caravaggio moved into the upper floors of the palace and produced most of his early works therein.

Now onto some of those early works.

One of Caravaggio's earliest paintings from his time in Rome is Boy Peeling Fruit. According to sources cited by the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, this piece was painted during the time that Caravaggio stayed with Monsignor Pandolfo Pucci, a prelate from Recanati. The first reliable record of this piece's provenance was its mention in the inventory of James II of England.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Boy Peeling Fruit, c. 1592 - 93
(Royal Collection Trust, UK; viewed at
Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/25)

According to Dr Ruggiero (a Renaissance expert), Caravaggio fell ill and did a self-portrait (Sick Bacchus) to pass the time. While the grapes and laurel conjures up Bacchus to one's senses, Dr. Ruggiero points out that the laurel is made from Ivy -- rather than  grape -- leaves. In the ancient world, poets were pale (because of the time they spent indoors) and wore ivy crowns. This, then, could have been Caravaggio depicting himself as a visual poet (painter).

Most art at this time still looked like the art of Michelangelo -- bright colors of superhuman forms -- but the art in Sick Bacchus was markedly different. As Dr. Ruggiero described it, the composition was right in your face with the table in the foreground, the subject in the mid-ground, and no background to speak of. Caravaggio learned this compositional style from Venetian artists.

There is some confusion around this painting. According to Caravaggio.com, the painter completed this work in 1593 while he was working in d'Arpino's studio. According to one source he was recovering from a bout of malaria while another says that he was a victim of a kick from a horse. The Journal of the Royal Society attributes the painter's pallor to the effects of jaundice. Dr. Ruggiero agrees with the 1593 date. Villa Borghese, the home of the painting, lists the date as 1595 while the Caravaggio 2025 exhibit lists it as 1595 - 96. 

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Self portrait as Bacchus (known as Sick Bacchus),
c. 1593 (Galleria Borghese, Rome; viewed at
Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/25)

While Boy Bitten by a Lizard does not yet manifest Caravaggio's signature chiaroscuoro, it does capture his ability to register a single point in time and centers flowers and leaves in a prominent still life. 

This painting was, according to Caravaggio's biographers, most certainly made for the open market, rather than for a specific patron. Many early 17th century copies of this painting exist "including a high-quality replica" at the Fondazione Longhi (Florence) which is thought to some to be from the hands of Caravaggio himself.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Boy Bitten by a Lizard, c. 1594 - 95
(National Gallery, London; viewed in situ
12/5/24)

The model for Baccus (1595 - 1597) is Mario Minniti, a young Sicilian painter with whom Caravaggio, according to Dr. Ruggerio, had an amorous relationship. We see a bed sheet spread over the model’s shoulder Toga-like, and the folded-over mattress for his repose. We see the flush in his cheeks from the drinking and bubbles in the decanter from the freshly poured wine. We see ripe fruits with brilliant colors and the waves in the wine glass showing either recently poured wine or liquid movement after a recent swirl.The folds of the model’s shirt sleeve can be seen through the glass stem which the model is holding in the approved manner.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Baccus, C. 1595 - 1597
(Uffizi, Florence; viewed in situ
10/2/25)

Cardinal Del Monte gifted the painting to Ferdinand I de Medici. It was found in the storage of the Uffizi in 1916.

The Fortune Teller "portrays a cunning Gypsy as she reads the palm of a naive young fellow, who, gazing into the woman's face, fails to realize that she is about to steal his precious ring." This light, bright painting is almost the antithesis of the Caravaggio works that we have come to know and love. This painting was part of Cardinal Monte's collection and was subsequently acquired by Carlo Emanuele Pio (along with St John the Baptist) in 1628.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, Fortune Teller,
 c. 1596 - 97 (Musei Capitolini - Pinacoteca Capitolina,
Rome; viewed at Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/25)

Similar to Fortune Teller in both airiness and underlying lack of morals, The Cardsharps was one of the first Caravaggio's to be purchased by Cardinal Monte. Referred to as The Game in early sources, this painting was acquired by Cardinal Antonio Barberini upon Monte's death.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, 
c. 1596 - 97 (Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX;
viewed at Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/25)

Caravaggio painted from live models; he did not do any drawings or other preparatory work. If he was dissatisfied with a painting, or a part of a painting, he simply painted over the offending area. His backgrounds at this time were mostly neutral.

The model in The Musicians (called Concert at the Caravaggio 2025 exhibition) is, again, Mario Minniti. This painting was done for Cardinal Monte, the first of a number. Caravaggio is the figure in the background. 

This painting was also acquired by Cardinal Barberini upon Monte's death.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
The Musicians, 1597
(National Gallery, Washington, DC; viewed in situ
8/5/25)

“This parade shield was given to Grand Duke Ferdinando I by Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte, a Medici agent at the papal court in Rome, in 1598. It was intended for the new armoury, where it was part of the knightly accoutrements of a dummy on horseback wearing Persian armour. The subject, based on the Classical myths on which Caravaggio had trained in his youth, is reinterpreted here in a naturalistic vein, the eyes open wide in horror, the mouth frozen in a cry of revulsion, the writhing tangle of serpents (paralleled in the scientific plates commissioned by the Medici from Jacopo Ligozzi) semingly at odds with the drastically severed neck.”

This painting was restored in 2002 with funding from

the Gruppo Maggiore.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Testa di Medusa,  c.  1597
(Uffizi, Florence; viewed in situ
10/2/25)

Narcissus breaks from the other paintings in this section with its dark background and, with reflection, foreground. According to Caravaggio 2025, this is "one of the most debated paintings in the Caravaggio catalogue." Those who initially attributed the painting to Caravaggio, gave a date of 1590 - 95 but, more recently, persons willing to attribute will give a date from 1597 - 99 while others question whether this is even a Caravaggio at all.

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio,
Narcissus, 1597 - 99
(Gallerie Nazionale di Arte Antica,
Palazzo Barberini, Rome; viewed at
Caravaggio 2025 exhibition, 7/18/25)

**********************************************************************************************************

Up until this time, all of Caravaggio's commissions had been small and from private sources. His first major contract was in 1602 with the family of Cardinal Mateo Contarelli. The contract called for Caravaggio to paint the walls of the family chapel at San Luigi Dei Francesi. Carravagio was not supposed to paint the altarpiece (it was supposed to be a sculpture) but the family was so impressed with the work that he did on the walls that they asked him to do that also.

By this time Carravaggio had gained critical and popular acclaim. He followed up the Contrarelli Chapel with a commission for the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome.

I will continue this series with the works falling into the category Invigorating the Dark Shadows.

©EverythingElse238

A survey of the most renowned Supper at Emmaus works

My recent exploration of the two versions of Caravaggio's Supper at Emmaus launched me on a quest for other treatments of the same subject. And boy did I find a bounty of material from historically famous painters. Herein I present some of the more notable treatments.

Titian

I was able to locate three separate Supper at Emmaus paintings by this world-famous artist: a 1534 version resident in the Walker Art Gallery; a 1533 - 34 version resident in the Louvre: and a 1545 version resident in the National Gallery of Ireland. As shown below, the compositions of the first two are fairly similar with differences restricted to color schemes, tablescape, deployment of the rightmost disciple, and background construct.

Titian, Supper at Emmaus, 1534 (Walker Art Gallery)

Titian, Supper at Emmaus, 1533 - 1534 (Louvre)

In the Walker painting, broad bean pods and bright blue borage flowers are scattered across the table.. At the time broad beans were considered peasant food and was typically served to poor pilgrims on their travels. This combination, though, may reflect a Venetian custom of eating candied broad beans at the Feast of the Dead on All Saints Day. Broad beans were thought to possess the souls of the dead while the borage , which was traditionally used to freshen wine, was believed to drive away sadness and usher in joy.

The 1545 version of the painting is positioned within a closer, darker space with a setting sun as a backdrop. The Innkeeper is omitted from this version. The smaller table makes for a more intimate environment.

Titian, Supper at Emmaus, 1545
(National Gallery of Ireland)

Veronese

Veronese has two versions of the painting on offer. His 1559 version is one of the most populated that I have encountered on this journey. The painting has a flashback to the preceding journey in the left panel and adults and children dressed in contemporary clothing arrayed around the central players. This is most likely a family portrait. The 1565 - 70 version is much less populated but still has seven adults, one kid, and a dog.

Paolo Veronese, Supper at Emmaus, 1559 (Louvre)

Paolo Veronese, Supper at Emmaus, 1565 - 1570
(Museum Boijmans van Beuningen)

Velázquez

One of the more claustrophobic renditions with tight quarters and no extraneous material. According to one source, Velázquez has followed Caravaggio in that his models are presented with "rustic, unidealized features.” This painting explores contrasts in reactions through "gesture, expression, and dramatic lighting." The tablecloth shows the artists still-life skills.

Velázquez, The Supper at Emmaus, 1622 - 1623
(The Met)

Rembrandt

A total of four Rembrandts covering the subject topic are presented in this survey. The 1628 effort (immediately below) has a strong contra-jure effect with the light source placed behind the subject turning it into a silhouette and undelining Jesus' divinity.

Rembrandt, The Supper at Emmaus, c. 1628
(Musée Jacquemart André)

The 1654 version is a print.

Rembrandt, The Supper at Emmaus, c. 1654
(Print, Metropolitan Museum of Art)

The 1648 version is one of the best of the lot, suffused as it is with serenity. The waiter has a contemporary look. This, the most famous of Rembrandt's efforts on the topic, has the second disciple kneeling at Jesus' feet and the white tablecloth serving as a partial overlay to a more extensive tablecloth.

Rembrandt, The Supper at Emmaus, 1648
(Musée du Louvre)

The 1649 version is very dramatic with a radiant light source emanating from Jesus himself. The limited color palette ensured that the viewer focused on the narrative and emotional resonance rather than color schemes.

Rembrandt, The Supper at Emmaus, 1649
(Fitzwilliam Museum)

Pontorno

This painting utilizes the chiaroscuoro effect and a high light source for visual impact. A beam of light illuminating Jesus' face indicates the moment of the revelation. 

This piece was inspired by Dürer's treatment (discussed later) and was originally commissioned by prior Leonardo Buonafede of the Charterhouse in Certosa del Galluzzo for placement in its guest quarters. In addition to Jesus and the Disciples, the monks of the Charterhouse are seen emerging from the dark background to bear witness to the event. It is thought that the figure to the right of Jesus is the Prior.

Pontorno, Supper at Emmaus, 1525
(Uffizi)

Rubens

Typical full-figured Rubens bodies. Open architecture and background landscape lends an Italianate look to the painting. This was acquired for Felipe IV at the 1640 auction of Rubens' belongings.

Peter Paul Rubens, The Supper at Emmaus, c. 1638
(Prado)

Albrecht Durer

Durer's Emmaus print was one of 36 woodcuts which comprised a series called Small Passions. By far the most flamboyant portrayal of Cleopas who is dressed as a Renaissance traveler. As in the case of Rembrandt's 1649 effort, Jesus is backlit but not so much as to provide the contra-jure effect that is present in the same painter's 1628 effort. Other persons are inserted into the background, a la Pontorno, and Dürer's monogram is visible on the side of the bench facing the viewer.

Albrecht Dürer, Supper at Emmaus, 1511
(National Museum of American History)

Bassano

This was an especially baffling painting for me. First, the full table seems to positioned between Jesus and the disciples; that is, they are not sitting at the sides of the table but at the end. Second, Jesus seems to be sitting uphill of the disciples. Third, the Disciple on the right is showing an unprecedented amount of skin. The dog in the picture looks like and over-sized cat and the cat looks like a rat. The knife in the still life is hanging precariously over the edge.The message is lost in the oddities of the painting.

Jacopo Bassano, The Supper at Emmaus, c. 1538
(Kimbell Art Museum)

Tintoretto

According to the museum, the basic composition of this painting conforms to High Renaissance norms:

• The scene takes place in an enclosed space parallel to the picture plane, defined by a checkered stone floor across the foreground
• Christ's place on the central axis is reiterated by the column over his head and the corner of the table
• The two groups of three figures flanking Christ are regulated by the classical system of contrasting counterbalances.

Tintoretto, The Supper at Emmaus, c. 1542
(Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest)

Francesco de Zurburán

Akin to the Velazquez piece, in terms of population paucity. Play of dark and light with the light source somewhere over the shoulder of the leftmost disciple. Orderly arrangement of the still-life components. Focus on the meal and the "men."

Francisco de Zurbarán, Dinner at Emmaus, 1639
(Museo Nacional de San Carlo)

******************************************************************************

This survey was prompted by curiosity emanating from my recent work comparing Caravaggio’s two treatments of the subject topic. Who else had treated this subject? How had they approached it?

This survey covered 16 artworks from 10 artists with Rembrandt (four), Titian (three), and Veronese (two) contributing multiple pieces to the effort. 

The core of the story is Jesus and the two disciples. Some of the efforts limited themselves to that while others extended to include patrons (Pontorno) and family portraits (Veronese).

A broad variety of approaches and techniques were employed by these leading lights of the painting world but they each succeeded in effectively communicating this simple yet powerful story.